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R. Adeboye, C. Flewelling,V. Ogbole, E. O'Sullivan 32 Starting with the broad concept of motivation, the literature generally supports the idea that it leads to better student outcomes, with the caveat that not all forms of motivation have the same effects; and that measured effects vary significantly across individual studies, likely because of diverse definitions and methods employed. Nevertheless, despite identifying no fewer than 15 theoretical frameworks of motivation and acknowledging that "navigating this dizzying array of constructs can be a challenge even for the seasoned researcher" (2016, p. 604), Lazowski and Hulleman's meta-analysis affirmed positive impact of motivation, indicating that motivation- focused interventions based on a range of theoretical underpinnings improved student performance (e.g., standardized test scores, course grades) and behavioural outcomes (e.g. discipline referrals). İlter (2021) found that amotivation (i.e., a lack of motivation) was related to academic performance, both directly and indirectly by way of absenteeism (i.e., lack of motivation was associated with lower attendance). Drawing on past literature and their own analyses, Fan and Wolters (2014) found that motivation 17 impacts student retention (i.e., the likelihood of dropping out). Looking at student interest more particularly, an earlier reference to Harackiewicz et al. (2016) reflected the authors' advice on how to design educational experiences to stimulate student interest. In the same piece, they describe interest as "essential to academic success" (p. 220) and present a four-phase model of how short-term situational interests triggered by such experiences can develop into more persistent individual interests that can have positive impacts on student engagement, as well as outcomes like learning, grades, and career aspirations. Looking at student confidence more particularly, a systematic review conducted by Vu et al., (2024) found that motivation defined in terms of self-belief had a positive reciprocal relationship with academic achievement; while a meta-analysis of high school achievement (Nunes et al., 2022) found that (among with socioeconomic status), self-efficacy was the strongest predictor of academic achievement. A positive sense of cultural identity can be credibly linked to improved performance and retention. With respect to the related concept of positive sense of cultural identity, a previous section highlighted what is effectively consensus around the importance of culturally-relevant pedagogy for Indigenous students in Canada and some empirical research showing positive impacts on outcomes 18 . More general research on the relationship between cultural identity and academic outcomes is supportive. For example, a meta-analysis conducted by Rivas-Drake et al. found that "positive ethnic-racial affect was similarly and positively related to both academic achievement and academic or school attitudes" (2014, p. 91) while Miller-Cotto and Byrnes' (2016) meta- analysis found a positive overall effect on student achievement (broadly defined), but that it was not statistically significant for all ethnic groups studied. Sleeter's review of the academic and social value of ethnic studies concludes the following: 17 Specifically, the expectancy-value model of motivation. 18 As a reminder, Papp and Cottrell (2021) specifically found positive effects on performance, attendance, and graduation rates; Rogers and Aglukark (2024) described a positive effect on attendance.